García de Arquer, F. P. et al. CO2 electrolysis to multicarbon products at activities greater than 1 A cm−2. Science 367, 661–666 (2020).
Li, Z. et al. Ampere-level co-electrosynthesis of formate from CO2 reduction paired with formaldehyde dehydrogenation reactions. Nat. Commun. 16, 4850 (2025).
Li, J. et al. Molecular-scale CO spillover on a dual-site electrocatalyst enhances methanol production from CO2 reduction. Nat. Nanotechnol. 20, 515–522 (2025).
Tang, Q. et al. Lattice-hydride mechanism in electrocatalytic CO2 reduction by structurally precise copper-hydride nanoclusters. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 139, 9728–9736 (2017).
Lorenzutti, F. et al. Microenvironment effects in electrochemical CO2 reduction from first-principles multiscale modelling. Nat. Catal. 8, 905–918 (2025).
Liu, H., Zhang, T. & Wu, J. Pre-pilot-scale tandem CO2 electrolysis. Nat. Chem. Eng. 1, 393–394 (2024).
Huang, J. E. et al. CO2 electrolysis to multicarbon products in strong acid. Science 372, 1074–1078 (2021).
Hao, S. et al. Acid- humidified CO2 gas input for stable electrochemical CO2 reduction reaction. Science 388, eadr3834 (2025).
Bharti, J. et al. Visible-light-driven CO2 reduction with homobimetallic complexes. cooperativity between metals and activation of different pathways. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 145, 25195–25202 (2023).
Li, Z. et al. Electron-rich Bi nanosheets promote CO2⋅− formation for high-performance and pH-universal electrocatalytic CO2 reduction. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 62, e202217569 (2023).
Mitic, B. M. et al. The oxygen-tolerant reductive glycine pathway assimilates methanol, formate and CO2 in the yeast Komagataella phaffii. Nat. Commun. 14, 7754 (2023).
Sahin, S. et al. Bioelectrocatalytic CO2 reduction by Mo-dependent formylmethanofuran dehydrogenase. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 62, e202311981 (2023).
Xie, W. et al. Metal-free reduction of CO2 to formate using a photochemical organohydride-catalyst recycling strategy. Nat. Chem. 15, 794–802 (2023).
Sun, Z., Ma, T., Tao, H., Fan, Q. & Han, B. Fundamentals and challenges of electrochemical CO2 reduction using two-dimensional materials. Chem 3, 560–587 (2017).
Franco, F., Rettenmaier, C., Jeon, H. S. & Roldan Cuenya, B. Transition metal-based catalysts for the electrochemical CO2 reduction: from atoms and molecules to nanostructured materials. Chem. Soc. Rev. 49, 6884–6946 (2020).
Chen, J. et al. Ultrafast photoinduced interfacial proton coupled electron transfer from CdSe quantum dots to 4,4′-bipyridine. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 138, 884–892 (2016).
Hutchison, P., Smith, L. E., Rooney, C. L., Wang, H. & Hammes-Schiffer, S. Proton-coupled electron transfer mechanisms for CO2 reduction to methanol catalyzed by surface-immobilized cobalt phthalocyanine. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 146, 20230–20240 (2024).
Wang, Q. et al. Modulating active center microenvironment in phthalocyanine-based covalent organic frameworks for enhanced electrocatalytic CO2 to CH3OH. Adv. Mater. 37, e2502644 (2025).
Wang, R. et al. Defect-phase engineered NiTi-TiO2 enabling near-unity selective photocatalytic CO2-to-methanol conversion. Nat. Commun. 16, 7844 (2025).
Wuttig, A., Yoon, Y., Ryu, J. & Surendranath, Y. Bicarbonate is not a general acid in Au-catalyzed CO2 electroreduction. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 139, 17109–17113 (2017).
Chen, J. et al. Unlocking cathodic potential dependent Pd deactivation for energy efficient CO2 electroreduction to formate. Nat. Commun. 16, 10169 (2025).
Chen, X., Granda-Marulanda, L. P., McCrum, I. T. & Koper, M. T. M. How palladium inhibits CO poisoning during electrocatalytic formic acid oxidation and carbon dioxide reduction. Nat. Commun. 13, 38 (2022).
Ryu, J. & Surendranath, Y. Polarization-induced local pH swing promotes Pd-catalyzed CO2 hydrogenation. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 142, 13384–13390 (2020).
Hu, X., Zhong, M., Wang, F. & Sun, Y. Janus palladium membrane electrode enables competent hydrodehalogenation via hydride transfer. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 147, 28015–28023 (2025).
Wang, H.-X., Toh, W. L., Tang, B. Y. & Surendranath, Y. Metal surfaces catalyse polarization-dependent hydride transfer from H2. Nat. Catal. 6, 351–362 (2023).
Yang, J. Y., Kerr, T. A., Wang, X. S. & Barlow, J. M. Reducing CO2 to HCO2− at mild potentials: lessons from formate dehydrogenase. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 142, 19438–19445 (2020).
Chung, H. W. et al. Reversible interfacial hydride transfer as a complementary tool to measure molecular hydricity. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 147, 36291–36300 (2025).
Ceballos, B. M. & Yang, J. Y. Directing the reactivity of metal hydrides for selective CO2 reduction. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 115, 12686–12691 (2018).
Wiedner, E. S. et al. Thermodynamic hydricity of transition metal hydrides. Chem. Rev. 116, 8655–8692 (2016).
Abdellah, A. M. et al. Impact of palladium/palladium hydride conversion on electrochemical CO2 reduction via in-situ transmission electron microscopy and diffraction. Nat. Commun. 15, 938 (2024).
Ceballos, B. M., Tsay, C. & Yang, J. Y. CO2 reduction or HCO2− oxidation? Solvent-dependent thermochemistry of a nickel hydride complex. Chem. Commun. 53, 7405–7408 (2017).
Ilic, S., Gesiorski, J. L., Weerasooriya, R. B. & Glusac, K. D. Biomimetic metal-free hydride donor catalysts for CO2 reduction. Acc. Chem. Res. 55, 844–856 (2022).
Ilic, S., Pandey Kadel, U., Basdogan, Y., Keith, J. A. & Glusac, K. D. Thermodynamic hydricities of biomimetic organic hydride donors. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 140, 4569–4579 (2018).
Karak, P., Mandal, S. K. & Choudhury, J. Bis-imidazolium-embedded heterohelicene: a regenerable NADP+ cofactor analogue for electrocatalytic CO2 reduction. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 145, 7230–7241 (2023).
Tsay, C., Livesay, B. N., Ruelas, S. & Yang, J. Y. Solvation effects on transition metal hydricity. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 137, 14114–14121 (2015).
Han, G., Li, G. & Sun, Y. Electrocatalytic hydrogenation using palladium membrane reactors. JACS Au 4, 328–343 (2024).
Han, G., Li, G. & Sun, Y. Electrocatalytic dual hydrogenation of organic substrates with a Faradaic efficiency approaching 200%. Nat. Catal. 6, 224–233 (2023).
Stankovic, M. D., Ge, B., Sperryn, J. F. & Berlinguette, C. P. Electrochemical control of heterolytic and homolytic hydrogenation pathways at a palladium surface. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 147, 10974–10980 (2025).
Zhong, M. et al. Electricity-driven site-selective deuteration of pharmaceuticals. Chem. Sci. 17, 1039–1050 (2026).
Blom, M. J. W., van Swaaij, W. P. M., Mul, G. & Kersten, S. R. A. Mechanism and micro kinetic model for electroreduction of CO2 on Pd/C: the role of different palladium hydride phases. ACS Catal. 11, 6883–6891 (2021).
Lin, X. et al. In situ synthesis of palladium hydride as an efficient and stable alkaline hydrogen oxidation reaction catalyst. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 147, 47068–47078 (2025).
Iwakura, C., Takezawa, S. & Inoue, H. Catalytic reduction of carbon dioxide with atomic hydrogen permeating through palladized Pd sheet electrodes. J. Electroanal. Chem. 459, 167–169 (1998).
Sauvé, E. R. et al. Open circuit potential decay transients quantify interfacial pH swings during high current density hydrogen electrocatalysis. Joule 8, 728–745 (2024).
Kong, K. et al. Controllable co-generation of bulk and surface hydrogen species in a palladium membrane reactor via collaborative electrolysis. Chem Catal. 6, 101602 (2026).
Chatterjee, S. et al. Free standing nanoporous palladium alloys as CO poisoning tolerant electrocatalysts for the electrochemical reduction of CO2 to formate. ACS Catal. 9, 5290–5301 (2019).
Min, X. & Kanan, M. W. Pd-catalyzed electrohydrogenation of carbon dioxide to formate: high mass activity at low overpotential and identification of the deactivation pathway. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 137, 4701–4708 (2015).
Kuntyi, O., Zozulya, G., Shepida, M. & Soltani, S. M. CO2 electroreduction in organic aprotic solvents: a mini review. J. Chem. 2022, 1–12 (2022).
Chu, A. T., Jung, O., Toh, W. L. & Surendranath, Y. Organic non-nucleophilic electrolyte resists carbonation during selective CO2 electroreduction. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 145, 9617–9623 (2023).
Gomes, R. J. et al. Probing electrolyte influence on CO2 reduction in aprotic solvents. J. Phys. Chem. C 126, 13595–13606 (2022).
Vasilyev, D. V. & Dyson, P. J. The role of organic promoters in the electroreduction of carbon dioxide. ACS Catal. 11, 1392–1405 (2021).
Agarwal, R. G. et al. Free energies of proton-coupled electron transfer reagents and their applications. Chem. Rev. 122, 1–49 (2022).
Cypcar, A. D. & Yang, J. Y. Controlling hydrogen evolution and CO2 reduction at transition metal hydrides. Acc. Chem. Res. 57, 3488–3499 (2024).
Waldie, K. M., Ostericher, A. L., Reineke, M. H., Sasayama, A. F. & Kubiak, C. P. Hydricity of transition-metal hydrides: thermodynamic considerations for CO2 reduction. ACS Catal. 8, 1313–1324 (2018).
Brereton, K. R., Smith, N. E., Hazari, N. & Miller, A. J. M. Thermodynamic and kinetic hydricity of transition metal hydrides. Chem. Soc. Rev. 49, 7929–7948 (2020).