A pilot randomized controlled trial published in the Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders reports that a four-week professional development program significantly improved student-teacher relationships for autistic children in general education classrooms. The study, titled “Improving Student-Teacher Relationships for Autistic Children: Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial of a Professional Development Program,” examined the feasibility and efficacy of a relationship-focused intervention called Smooth Sailing. The research involved 32 general education teachers from kindergarten through second grade and their autistic students, randomly assigned to either an intervention group or a delayed control group. The primary aim was to determine if enhancing teacher knowledge and skills could lead to measurable improvements in the quality of interactions between educators and autistic students.
The Smooth Sailing program is designed to be neurodiversity-affirming, viewing autistic traits as part of the natural range of human diversity rather than as pathologies requiring correction. The intervention consisted of three main components: online didactic modules, individual virtual coaching, and in-vivo practice activities. Teachers completed eight online modules over four weeks, spending approximately 45 minutes per module on their own time. These modules provided content knowledge on autism, challenged deficit-based messages, and encouraged teachers to reframe autistic characteristics as potential strengths. The program utilized a Google-based platform for submitting self-reflections and tracking usage.
In addition to the online modules, each teacher was paired with a coach for three individual sessions via Zoom. Coaching was guided by semi-scripted protocols and included weekly written feedback on teachers’ self-reflections. The coaches, who were graduate students or PhD-level staff with experience in autism, provided in-session support to tailor strategies to individual student needs. This coaching component was designed to balance flexibility with structure, allowing teachers to problem-solve around emergent issues while maintaining fidelity to the program’s core strategies.
The in-vivo practice activities included two specific types of interactions. The first, Time2Connect sessions, were brief one-on-one interactions during the school day lasting between three and ten minutes. Teachers implemented these sessions three to five times per week, using strategies to foster warmth, follow the child’s lead, and use labeled praise while minimizing questions and academic instruction. The second activity, Teacher-as-Interviewer, involved a single 30-to-45-minute interaction with the student’s caregiver to strengthen collaboration. This session focused on active listening strategies, including validation and reflection, to help teachers learn more about the child and caregiver.
The study measured outcomes at three time points: pre-program, post-program, and a two-month follow-up. The primary efficacy outcome was the quality of the student-teacher relationship, assessed using the Student-Teacher Relationship Scale. Results showed that the intervention group experienced significant gains in relationship quality compared to the control group, with a medium to large effect size of 0.79. Specifically, the intervention group’s relationship quality scores increased by about eight points on average, while the control group saw a slight decline. The program also significantly improved student-teacher closeness and led to a marginally significant reduction in conflict.
Teacher outcomes were also significantly affected by the intervention. Teachers in the intervention group showed large gains in autism knowledge, with an effect size of 1.49, and self-efficacy, with an effect size of 1.50. Intervention group teachers scored roughly 28 percentage points higher on the autism knowledge survey at post-program compared to pre-program, whereas control teachers scored about eight points higher. These findings suggest that the program effectively addressed the reported lack of autism training among general education teachers, enhancing their confidence and preparedness to support autistic students.
Student outcomes indicated positive effects on academic engagement and behavioral-emotional adjustment. The program had a significant, large effect on children’s overall academic engagement in the classroom, with an effect size of 0.91. Additionally, there was a significant, medium effect on students’ total behavioral and emotional functioning, with an effect size of 0.63. However, effects on social skills were not statistically significant, though a medium effect size was observed. At the two-month follow-up, gains in student-teacher relationship quality and teacher knowledge were sustained, while some student outcome effects diminished or became non-significant.
The study also examined the feasibility and acceptability of the program. Teachers reported high levels of acceptability, with a mean enjoyment rating of 4.6 out of 5 for the online modules. Implementation fidelity was strong, with all teachers completing the coaching sessions and the majority conducting Time2Connect sessions at the recommended frequency. By the two-month follow-up, 71.4% of teachers were still completing at least one Time2Connect session per week, indicating sustainability of the practices learned. Caregivers also reported positive experiences with the Teacher-as-Interviewer session, with 94.4% agreeing that it helped build a more collaborative relationship with their child’s teacher.
Despite the positive findings, the study had several limitations. The sample size was small, with only 32 teachers and 32 students, and the study was intentionally underpowered as a pilot trial. The researchers emphasized effect sizes over p-values in their interpretation, noting that the medium to large effects suggest the intervention is worth pursuing on a larger scale. Additionally, the study did not assess children’s own perspectives on the program, which is a gap for future research. The generalizability of the findings may also be limited by the specific contexts of the schools involved, which were located in California and Massachusetts.
The authors conclude that the Smooth Sailing program has the capacity to enhance relationships and autism knowledge for general education teachers and to improve school adjustment for autistic students. The findings demonstrate the potential of relationship-focused, neurodiversity-affirming professional development to address the urgent need for improved autism training in general education settings. Future research should examine the program’s efficacy in larger, more diverse samples and explore ways to further strengthen caregiver-teacher relationships. The study highlights the importance of supporting teachers with the skills necessary to build high-quality relationships with their autistic students, particularly in the early school years when such relationships are most critical.
The research context for this trial highlights a persistent gap in teacher preparation. Nationally, 59% of autistic students are placed in general education classes, yet the majority of general education teachers report not having received professional training in autism. This lack of preparation contributes to strained student-teacher relationships, which are marked by lower closeness and greater conflict compared to non-autistic peers. The study notes that negative interactions can begin early, with associations to outcomes such as expulsion from preschool settings. Conversely, positive relationships provide a foundation for learning and engagement, particularly during emotional or academic challenges. The authors argue that teacher training should be informed by the neurodiversity paradigm, which views autistic traits as part of natural human diversity rather than a pathology requiring correction. This approach aligns with the priorities of autistic advocates, who often describe school as an isolating or marginalizing experience. Specifically, 60% of autistic youth cite having a teacher who understands autism as the main factor that would improve their school experience.
The intervention design distinguishes Smooth Sailing from existing programs like Banking Time or Teacher Child Interaction Training, which were developed for preschool-aged, non-autistic children. Smooth Sailing is specifically directed toward teachers in early school grades (kindergarten through second grade) and focuses on the unique relational dynamics of autistic students. The program’s development involved an iterative, multi-year process with input from teachers and autistic consultants. Teacher feedback drove improvements in the feasibility of program strategies, while feedback from autistic partners influenced many content decisions. The final program manual included an introductory welcome packet, a program calendar, and help guides for navigating the digital platform. The online modules were interactive, requiring teachers to record self-reflections in response to prompts. These exercises included reframing autistic characteristics as potential strengths and understanding behaviors as forms of communication, challenging deficit-based narratives often present in traditional training materials.
Statistical analysis for the trial employed hierarchical regressions to assess program efficacy. Time 1 pre-program measurements were entered as independent variables along with group condition, while Time 2 post-program variables served as dependent variables. This method controls for baseline levels to isolate the impact of the intervention. Because the study was intentionally underpowered as a pilot trial, the researchers emphasized Cohen’s d effect sizes over p-values in their interpretation. They used established guidelines where 0.15 indicates a small effect, 0.36 a medium effect, and 0.65 a large effect. Data were analyzed using an intention-to-treat approach, including all participants who were randomized regardless of subsequent withdrawal. Little’s Missing Completely at Random test indicated that data were likely missing completely at random, supporting the validity of the listwise deletion applied to missing data. Baseline comparisons revealed no significant differences between the intervention and control groups on demographics, autism characteristics, or language measures, ensuring that observed changes were attributable to the program rather than pre-existing disparities.
While teacher-reported outcomes showed significant improvements, caregiver-reported measures presented a more complex picture. Although teachers reported significant gains in caregiver-teacher relationship quality and school involvement, caregivers’ own reports of relationship quality showed minimal and non-significant effects. This discrepancy suggests that the single Teacher-as-Interviewer session may not have been sufficient to alter caregivers’ perceptions of the relationship, even if it improved their sense of involvement. The authors note that future research should explore whether more frequent but less intense interactions between teachers and caregivers might yield stronger benefits. Additionally, the study did not assess the exact percentage of time each child spent in the general education classroom, only confirming it was at least 50%. This limitation may affect the generalizability of the findings to students with higher support needs who are rarely found in general education settings. The researchers also acknowledge that the study did not capture the children’s own perspectives on the Time2Connect sessions, a gap that future research should address through direct child report or systematic observation of assent and enjoyment.
Subject of Research: Pilot RCT of a professional development program for general education teachers of autistic students
Article Title: Improving Student-Teacher Relationships for Autistic Children: Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial of a Professional Development Program
Article References: Blacher, J., Eisenhower, A., Bolourian, Y., Hamsho, N., & Ledoux Galligan, M. (2026). Improving Student-Teacher Relationships for Autistic Children: Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial of a Professional Development Program. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-026-07549-0
Image Credits: AI Generated
DOI: 10.1007/s10803-026-07549-0
Keywords: autism, student-teacher relationships, professional development, randomized controlled trial, general education, neurodiversity, teacher training, early childhood education, Improving, Student-Teacher, Relationships, Autistic